• Some people say that Java is a "pointerless" language
• In fact, Java uses references (which are related to pointers) but hides them from you
• In C/C++ you don't have that luxury -- you have to worry about how and where variables are stored and how you can/should refer to them

• A Line of Code:
  • int i;
• What Happens:
  • i is added to the name table
  • i is designated a value type
  • Memory is allocated for an int
  • The memory is not initialized
• Where is the Memory?
  • Use &i
• An Illustration:
  • 

• Another Line of Code:
  • i = 5;
• What Happens:
  • i is assigned the value 5
• An Illustration:
  • 

• Declaring a Pointer:
  • Pointers are declared using *
• An Example:
  • int *ptr;
• Where is the Memory?
  • Use &ptr
  • (How much memory can be addressed in C++?)
• An Illustration:
  • 

• Using a Pointer:
  • Pointers should contain memory addresses, but this is not enforced
• An Example:
  • ptr = &i;
• An Illustration:
  • 

• De-referencing a Pointer:
  • Finds the value of the entity that is being pointed at
  • Done with the * operator
• An Example:

  • 	      int    j;
    
    	      j = *ptr;
    	      

• An Illustration:
  • 

• Multiple Pointers to the Same Memory:
  • Just as you can have two signs that point to the same airport, you can have two pointers that point to the same entity
• An Example:

  • 	      int    *otherptr;
    
    	      otherptr = &i;
    	      

• An Illustration:
  • 

• De-referencing Revisited:
  • You can de-reference a pointer on the left-hand-side of an assignment operator
• An Example:
  • (*otherptr) = 9;
• An Illustration:
  • 

• Java vs. C++:
  • In Java, arrays are objects (and hence are reference types)
  • What happens in C++?
• An Example:
  • int a[4];
• An Illustration:
  • 

• A Surprising Fact:
  • In most contexts, an unsubscripted array name represents a pointer to the first element of the array
  • So, in most contexts, a, &a and &a[0] all evaluate to the same thing
  • The exceptions are when the array name passes the entire array (e.g., with sizeof and &)
• An Example:

  •    cout << "The contents of a:    " << a << "\n";
       cout << "The address  of a:    " << &a << "\n";
       cout << "The address  of a[0]: " << &a[0] << "\n";
       cout << "The address  of a[1]: " << &a[1] << "\n";
       cout << "The address  of a[2]: " << &a[2] << "\n";
       cout << "The address  of a[3]: " << &a[3] << "\n";
                  

• A Note:
  • In the last four, [] is evaluated before &

• Elements of Arrays:
  • An element of an int array is an int
• An Example:

  •     a[0] = 100;
        a[1] = 101;
        a[2] = 102;
        a[3] = 103;
                  

• An Illustration:
  • 

• Pointers to Arrays:
  • A pointer to an element of an int array is a pointer to an int
• An Example:

  •     int     *thirdptr;
    
        thirdptr = &a[0];
                  

• An Illustration:
  • 

• Passing Arrays as Parameters:
  • When an array is passed as an actual parameter it is converted to the corresponding pointer type
• Be Careful:
  • This means that the formal parameter (i.e., the parameter in the method declaration/definition) should be a pointer

• A Surprising Fact:
  • Adding 1 to a pointer to an int does not change its contents by 1, it changes its contents by the size of the data type it is pointing to
• An Example:
  • thirdptr+1 is 0x22FF54
• Using This Fact:
  • *(thirdptr) is the same as a[0]
  • *(thirdptr+1) is the same as a[1]
  • *(thirdptr+2) is the same as a[2]
  • *(thirdptr+3) is the same as a[3]

An Example

cppexamples/memory/IndexOf.cpp

        /**
 *
 * An example that uses a char*
 *
 * @author  Prof. David Bernstein, James Madison University
 * @version 1.0
 */
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

/**
 * Find the index of the first occurence
 * of a character in a string.
 *
 * @param string_ptr A pointer to the string
 * @param lookFor    The character to look for
 *
 * @side-effects     None (Or are there?  Is string_ptr changed?)
 *
 * @return           The index of the first occurence of the 
 *                   character (0 based) or -1 if the character 
 *                   is not contained in the string
 */
int indexOf(char* string_ptr, char lookFor) {
  int index;

  index = 0;
  while ((*string_ptr != lookFor) && (*string_ptr != '\0')) {
    ++string_ptr;
    ++index;
  }

  if (*string_ptr == '\0')
    index = -1;

  return index;
}

/**
 * The entry point of the application
 */
int main(void) {
  char line[80];

  strcpy(line, "This is a line.\n");

  cout << indexOf(line, 'A') << "\n";
  cout << indexOf(line, 'i') << "\n";
  cout << indexOf(line, '\n') << "\n";
  cout << line;

}
        

• Overview:
  • A reference serves as an indirect handle to an entity
  • References are declared using &
• Differences Between Pointers and References:
  • A pointer may not address an entity whereas a reference always does
  • As a result, references must be initialized when declared
  • A reference cannot be reassigned to refer to another entity

• An Example:

  •     int     &r = i;
                  

  • r now refers to i so it has the same address and the same contents
• An Illustration:
  • 

• An Example:

  •     r = 8;
                  

  • A value of 8 is assigned to r and hence to i
• An Illustration:
  • 

An Encapsulation of a Simple Weight

cppexamples/memory/Weight.h

        #ifndef edu_jmu_cs_Weight_h
#define edu_jmu_cs_Weight_h

/**
 * A very simple weight class (used to demonstrate memory
 * allocation for objects)
 *
 * @author  Prof. David Bernstein, James Madison University
 * @version 1.0
 */
class Weight {
 public:
  int pounds, ounces;

  /**
   * Explicit Value Constructor
   *
   * @param lbs   The number of pounds in this Weight
   * @param oz    The number of ounces in this Weight
   */
  Weight(int lbs, int oz);
};
#endif
        

cppexamples/memory/Weight.cpp

        #include "Weight.h"

Weight::Weight(int lbs, int oz) {
  pounds = lbs;
  ounces = oz;
}

        

• An Example:

  •     Weight    w(6,11);
                  

  • Memory is allocated for a Weight object, its constructor is called, and the two member attributes are initialized
• An Illustration:
  •