• Etymology:
  • From the Greek - "having many forms"
• In this course:
  • At run-time, a variable may "take the form of" any of its ancestors.
• Related Concepts:
  • Dynamic binding

• Search Order in Java:
  • If the "message" is sent to an object of the derived class then the derived class is searched (for the existence of such a method) first and the base class is searched second. (Note: The search will move up the class hierarchy as needed.)
  • If the "message" is sent to an object of the base class then only the base class is searched.
• Search Order in C++:
  • Depends on whether the method is declared virtual

• Binding (for Dynamically Allocated Objects):
  • Non-virtual methods are resolved at compile time (called static binding)
  • Virtual methods are resolved at run-time (called dynamic binding)
• Suppose a message is sent to an object...
  • declared to be of the base class and actually of the base class:
    • The method in the base class is always used.
  • declared to be of the derived class and actually of the derived class:
    • First the derived class is searched for the method and then the base class is searched
  • declared to be of the base class and actually of the derived class:
    • If the method is non-virtual only the base class is searched
    • If the method is virtual the derived class is searched first and then the base class is searched

The Specification of Account

cppexamples/oopbasics/banking/Account.h

        #ifndef edu_jmu_cs_Account_h
#define edu_jmu_cs_Account_h

/**
 * A simple "bank" Account
 *
 * @author  Prof. David Bernstein, James Madison University
 */
class Account {
 private:
  float balance;
  int id;

 public:
  /**
   * Explicit Value Constructor
   *
   * @param id              The ID number for this account
   * @param initialDeposit  The initial deposit (in dollars)
   */
  Account(int id, float initialDeposit);

  /**
   * Destructor.
   */
  virtual ~Account();

  /**
   * Determines the maximum amount that can be withdrawn
   *
   * @return  The size of the maximum possible withdrawal
   */
  virtual double amountAvailable(void);

  /**
   * Deposits money in this Account
   *
   * @param amount   The size of the deposit
   * @return         0 if unable to make the deposit and 1 otherwise
   */
  int deposit(float amount);

  /**
   * Gets the ID of this Account
   *
   * @return   The ID
   */
  int getID(void);

  /**
   * Withdraw money from this Account
   *
   * @param amount  The size of the withdrawal
   * @return        0 if unable to make the withdrawal and 1 otherwise
   */
  int withdraw(float amount);
};

#endif
        

The Implementation of Account

cppexamples/oopbasics/banking/Account.cpp

        #include "Account.h"

Account::Account(int idNumber, float initialDeposit) {
  balance = 0;

  id = idNumber;
  if (initialDeposit > 0)
    balance = initialDeposit;
}

double Account::amountAvailable(void) {
  return balance;
}

int Account::deposit(float amount) {
  // Error checking
  if (amount < 0)
    return 0;

  balance += amount;
  return 1;
}

int Account::getID(void) {
  return id;
}

int Account::withdraw(float amount) {
  // Error checking
  if (amount < 0)
    return 0;

  // Check if available funds are sufficient
  if (amountAvailable() < amount)
    return 0;

  balance -= amount;
  return 1;
}
        

The Specification of an Overdraft Account

cppexamples/oopbasics/banking/OverdraftAccount.h

        #ifndef edu_jmu_cs_OverdraftAccount_h
#define edu_jmu_cs_OverdraftAccount_h

#include "Account.h"

/**
 * A "bank" Account that allows the owner to withdraw more money
 * than is in the account 
 *
 * @author  Prof. David Bernstein, James Madison University
 */
class OverdraftAccount : public Account {
 public:
  /**
   * Explicit Value Constructor
   *
   * @param idNumber        The ID for the Account
   * @param initialDeposit  The initial deposit
   * @param limit           The overdraft limit
   */
  OverdraftAccount(int idNumber, double initialDeposit, double limit);

  /**
   * Determine the maximum amount that can be withdrawn
   *
   * Note: This method overrides amountAvailable() in Account.
   * This method is called by the method withdraw() which
   * is defined in Account.
   *
   * @return The size of the maximum possible withdrawal
   */
  double amountAvailable();

 protected:
  double overdraftLimit;
};

#endif
        

The Implementation of an Overdraft Account

cppexamples/oopbasics/banking/OverdraftAccount.cpp

        #include "OverdraftAccount.h"

OverdraftAccount::OverdraftAccount(int idNumber, double initialDeposit,
                                   double limit)
    : Account(idNumber, initialDeposit) {
  overdraftLimit = 0.0;
  if (limit > 0.0)
    overdraftLimit = limit;
}

double OverdraftAccount::amountAvailable() {
  return (Account::amountAvailable() + overdraftLimit);
}
        

A Driver

First, build and execute the application with the amountAvailable() method declared virtual. Then, build and execute the application without the amountAvailable() method declared virtual. Which behaves like Java?

cppexamples/oopbasics/banking/Driver.cpp

        #include "Account.h"
#include "OverdraftAccount.h"

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

/**
 * \file
 * An example that uses the Account and OverdraftAccount classes
 *
 * @author  Prof. David Bernstein, James Madison University
 */

/**
 * A function to illustrate what happens when an
 * OverdraftAccount is passed as an Account
 */
void print(Account *a) {
  cout << a->getID() << " available: " << a->amountAvailable() << "\n";

}

/**
 * The entry point of the application
 */
int main(void) {
  int ok;

  Account *andrew;
  Account *orville;
  OverdraftAccount *ollie;

  andrew = new Account(1001, 100.00);
  orville = new OverdraftAccount(1002, 100.0, 200.0);
  ollie = new OverdraftAccount(1003, 100.0, 200.0);

  cout << "\nUsing objects directly:\n";
  cout << andrew->getID() << " available: " << andrew->amountAvailable()
       << "\n";
  cout << orville->getID() << " available: " << orville->amountAvailable()
       << "\n";
  cout << ollie->getID() << " available: " << ollie->amountAvailable() << "\n";

  cout << "\nUsing objects passed as Account objects:\n";
  print(andrew);
  print(orville);
  print(ollie);

  return 1;
}
        

• Defined:
  • A virtual method that is assigned the value 0 when declared/specified
• An Example:

  • 	  virtual char getSymbol() = 0;
              

• Relationship to Java:
  • Essentially the same as abstract methods

• Can be used to create the equivalent of abstract classes in Java (if any of the methods are pure virtual methods)
• Can be used to create the equivalent of interfaces in Java (if all of the methods are pure virtual methods)

1. The destructor in the derived class is executed
2. The base class destructor is executed
3. The memory allocated to the object is returned to the free store

• Discerning the Type:
  • The typeid() function in <typeinfo> allows one to determine the actual type of an object (it is passed a pointer and returns a type_info object)
• Casting:
  • The static_cast and dynamic_cast operators can be used to convert types (without and with run-time verification respectively)
• Advice:
  • Use RTTI sparingly - it's use usually indicates a bad design